A History of Sri Lanka: From Ancient Beginnings to Modern Challenges

Sri Lanka, the island nation off the southern tip of India, boasts a rich and complex history spanning millennia. This chronology highlights pivotal events and figures, with a particular focus on the modern period.

Ancient & Medieval Eras:

• Pre-History (c. 125,000 BCE - 300 BCE): Evidence suggests prehistoric human settlements in Sri Lanka. The indigenous Vedda people are believed to be descendants of these early inhabitants.
• Anuradhapura Period (c. 377 BCE - 1017 CE): The arrival of Prince Vijaya from India in 543 BCE marked the beginning of Sinhalese dominance. Anuradhapura, established as the capital, flourished as a center for Buddhism and Sinhalese culture. King Devanampiya Tissa's (247-207 BCE) conversion to Buddhism under the influence of Emperor Ashoka's son, Mahinda, remains a seminal event. The construction of magnificent stupas like Ruwanwelisaya and Jetavanaramaya, intricate irrigation systems, and a sophisticated monastic tradition characterized this era.
• Polonnaruwa Period (1070 - 1232): The Chola invasion from South India led to the shift of power to Polonnaruwa. While King Vijayabahu I (1055-1110) successfully drove out the Cholas and unified the country, subsequent South Indian invasions weakened the kingdom. King Parakramabahu I (1153–1186) is revered for his military prowess, ambitious irrigation projects, and patronage of the arts.
• Transitional Period (1232 - 1505): Following the Polonnaruwa period, Sri Lanka saw the rise and fall of several smaller kingdoms, including Dambadeniya, Yapahuwa, and Kotte. This period witnessed cultural exchange with Southeast Asia and the arrival of Arab traders, significantly impacting Sri Lankan society.
• Kingdoms of Kotte, Kandy, and Jaffna (1412 - 1597): By the 15th century, the island was divided into three main kingdoms. The Kotte Kingdom, centered in present-day Colombo, controlled the southwest and thrived on trade. The Kandyan Kingdom, nestled in the central highlands, became a bastion of Sinhalese culture and independence. The Jaffna Kingdom, ruled by Tamil kings, held sway in the north.

Colonial Era & the Struggle for Independence:

• Portuguese Arrival and the Rise of the Kandyan Kingdom (1505 - 1658): The arrival of the Portuguese, drawn by the lucrative spice trade, marked a turning point. While they captured coastal areas, the Kandyan Kingdom resisted fiercely, retaining its independence.
• Dutch Period (1658 - 1796): The Dutch East India Company ousted the Portuguese and established control over the coastal regions. They further developed the spice trade and implemented administrative reforms, leaving a lasting mark on Sri Lankan law and infrastructure.
• British Rule and the Unification of Ceylon (1796 - 1948): The British seized control from the Dutch during the Napoleonic Wars. The Kandyan Convention of 1815 saw the last vestiges of Sinhalese independence extinguished, bringing the entire island under British rule. The British introduced coffee, tea, and rubber plantations, transforming the economy and landscape. The 19th century witnessed a burgeoning nationalist movement, advocating for self-rule. Prominent figures like Anagarika Dharmapala spearheaded religious and cultural revival, while leaders like D.S. Senanayake advocated for constitutional reform. Ceylon finally achieved independence on February 4th, 1948.

Independent Sri Lanka: A Nation Divided:

• Post-Independence and the Rise of Ethnic Tensions (1948 - 1972): Independent Ceylon, as it was initially known, faced challenges from the outset. The "Sinhala Only Act" of 1956, making Sinhala the sole official language, marginalized the Tamil minority and exacerbated ethnic tensions.
• First Republic and Growing Unrest (1972 - 1978): Sri Lanka became a republic in 1972. Prime Minister Sirimavo Bandaranaike implemented socialist policies, but economic stagnation and rising unemployment fueled social unrest. Tamil militancy emerged, spearheaded by groups like the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), demanding a separate Tamil state.
• Civil War and its Aftermath (1983 - 2009): The anti-Tamil riots of July 1983, known as Black July, marked the descent into a brutal civil war. The LTTE, under the leadership of Velupillai Prabhakaran, gained notoriety for its guerilla tactics and suicide bombings. The war ravaged the country for over two decades, claiming thousands of lives and displacing countless others.
• Post-War Period and the Rajapaksa Era (2009 - 2015): The Sri Lankan military finally defeated the LTTE in 2009, ending the war. Mahinda Rajapaksa, who oversaw the war's end, consolidated power during his presidency (2005 - 2015). While he spearheaded infrastructure development, allegations of human rights abuses, corruption, and authoritarianism mounted.
• Sirisena Presidency and Coalition Politics (2015 - 2019): In a surprising turn, Maithripala Sirisena defeated Mahinda Rajapaksa in the 2015 presidential elections. Sirisena promised reconciliation and accountability for war-time atrocities, but his tenure was marked by political instability and a power struggle with Prime Minister Ranil Wickremesinghe.
• The Return of the Rajapaksas and the Economic Crisis (2019 - present): Gotabaya Rajapaksa, brother of Mahinda Rajapaksa, won the 2019 presidential election on a platform of security and nationalism. However, his government's policies, including tax cuts, a ban on chemical fertilizers, and depleted foreign reserves, led to an unprecedented economic crisis in 2022.

Sri Lanka Today:

Sri Lanka faces multifaceted challenges: recovering from its economic collapse, addressing social and ethnic divisions, and navigating its geopolitical position in a rapidly changing world. The Easter Sunday bombings in 2019 highlighted the continued threat of religious extremism. The Rajapaksa family's grip on power loosened with Gotabaya Rajapaksa's resignation in 2022, amidst widespread protests. Ranil Wickremesinghe's ascension to the presidency brought some stability, but the nation remains deeply divided.

Key Themes in Sri Lankan History:

• Impact of Geography: As an island strategically located on vital maritime trade routes, Sri Lanka has been shaped by interactions with diverse cultures and empires.
• Buddhism and its Influence: The arrival of Buddhism from India profoundly shaped Sri Lankan society, art, architecture, and cultural identity.
• Colonial Legacy: Centuries of colonial rule under the Portuguese, Dutch, and British left an indelible mark on Sri Lanka's economy, administration, and social fabric.
• Ethnic Tensions: The historical interplay between the Sinhalese and Tamil communities, exacerbated by post-independence policies, has been a defining aspect of Sri Lanka's modern history.
• Resilience and the Search for Unity: Despite facing numerous challenges, including a brutal civil war and economic turmoil, the people of Sri Lanka continue to strive for peace, unity, and a prosperous future.

Looking Ahead:

Sri Lanka's story is far from over. The nation stands at a crossroads, grappling with its past while navigating a complex present. Its future hinges on addressing deep-rooted issues, promoting reconciliation, and embracing sustainable development for all communities.