A History of Iraq: From Ancient Mesopotamia to the Modern Day

This timeline offers a point-wise history of Iraq, highlighting key events and personalities:

Ancient Mesopotamia (c. 8500 BCE - 539 BCE):

• c. 8500 BCE: Earliest evidence of settlement in Mesopotamia ("land between the rivers") in areas that encompass modern-day Iraq.
• c. 3500 BCE: Emergence of Sumerian city-states (e.g., Ur, Uruk, Lagash) known for their advancements in writing (cuneiform), mathematics, astronomy, and architecture (ziggurats).
• c. 2334-2279 BCE: Sargon of Akkad conquers Sumerian city-states and establishes the Akkadian Empire, the first Mesopotamian empire.
• c. 2100-2000 BCE: The rise of the Third Dynasty of Ur under Ur-Nammu, known for its legal code (Code of Ur-Nammu) and revival of Sumerian culture.
• c. 1792-1750 BCE: Reign of Hammurabi of Babylon, famous for his law code (Code of Hammurabi).
• c. 1595 BCE: Sack of Babylon by the Hittites, marking the end of the Old Babylonian period.
• c. 911-612 BCE: The Neo-Assyrian Empire, known for its military prowess and powerful rulers like Ashurnasirpal II and Sennacherib, dominates the region.
• 612-539 BCE: The Neo-Babylonian Empire, under Nebuchadnezzar II, defeats the Assyrians and experiences a cultural and architectural golden age.

Persian and Hellenistic Periods (539 BCE - 637 CE):

• 539 BCE: Cyrus the Great of Persia conquers Babylon, integrating Mesopotamia into the Achaemenid Empire.
• 331 BCE: Alexander the Great defeats Darius III of Persia at the Battle of Gaugamela, incorporating Mesopotamia into his empire.
• 312-63 BCE: Following Alexander's death, the Seleucid Empire controls Mesopotamia, leading to the spread of Hellenistic culture.
• 150 BCE - 224 CE: The Parthian Empire, centered in Persia, challenges Seleucid rule and establishes control over Mesopotamia.

Islamic Period (637 CE - 1534):

• 637 CE: Muslim Arab forces defeat the Sassanid Persians at the Battle of al-Qādisiyyah, bringing Mesopotamia under Islamic rule.
• 750-1258 CE: The Abbasid Caliphate, with its capital in Baghdad, establishes a golden age of Islamic civilization known for its advancements in science, philosophy, and literature.
• 945-1055 CE: The Buyid dynasty, of Iranian Daylamite origin, weakens the Abbasid Caliphate while ruling most of Iraq and Western Persia.
• 1055-1194 CE: The Seljuk Turks gain control over Baghdad and much of the Middle East, further diminishing Abbasid authority.
• 1258 CE: Mongol forces under Hulagu Khan sack Baghdad, effectively ending the Abbasid Caliphate and ushering in a period of destruction.
• 1401-1508 CE: The Timurid Empire, founded by Timur (Tamerlane), takes control of Iraq, but its rule is marked by instability and conflict.

Ottoman Rule (1534-1918):

• 1534: Suleiman the Magnificent of the Ottoman Empire conquers Baghdad and incorporates Iraq into the empire.
• 17th-19th centuries: Iraq experiences a period of decline due to weak Ottoman administration and internal conflicts between Ottoman officials and local tribes.
• 19th century: European influence grows in the region, with Britain establishing a strong presence in the Persian Gulf.

British Mandate and Independence (1918-1958):

• 1917: British forces occupy Baghdad during World War I.
• 1920: The League of Nations grants Britain a mandate over Iraq, sparking resistance from Iraqi nationalists.
• 1921: Faisal I, son of Sharif Hussein of Mecca, is crowned king of Iraq, establishing the Hashemite monarchy.
• 1932: Iraq gains formal independence from Britain, but British influence remains strong.
• 1941: A pro-Axis coup d'état leads to British intervention and the return of the Hashemite monarchy.
• 1958: A military coup led by Abdul Karim Qasim overthrows the Hashemite monarchy, abolishes the monarchy, and establishes a republic.

The Republic and the Rise of Saddam Hussein (1958-2003):

• 1958-1963: The Qasim regime faces internal instability and conflict with Kurdish groups seeking autonomy.
• 1963: The Ba'ath Party, a secular Arab nationalist party, seizes power in a coup, but their rule is short-lived.
• 1968: The Ba'ath Party regains control through another coup, with Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr becoming president.
• 1979: Saddam Hussein assumes the presidency, beginning a brutal dictatorship characterized by repression, human rights abuses, and regional conflicts.
• 1980-1988: The Iran-Iraq War, a devastating conflict motivated by territorial disputes and ideological differences, weakens both countries.
• 1990-1991: Iraq invades Kuwait, leading to the First Gulf War, a U.S.-led military campaign that expels Iraqi forces from Kuwait.
• 1991-2003: Following the Gulf War, Iraq faces economic sanctions and international isolation due to Saddam Hussein's defiance of UN resolutions.

Post-Saddam Era (2003-present):

• 2003: A U.S.-led invasion topples Saddam Hussein's regime, but the country descends into chaos and sectarian violence.
• 2005: Iraq holds its first multi-party elections since the fall of the monarchy, but the country continues to grapple with insurgency and political instability.
• 2006-2008: Sectarian violence escalates into a civil war, with Sunni and Shi'a militias vying for control.
• 2007: The U.S. implements a "surge" strategy, increasing troop levels and partnering with local forces to combat the insurgency.
• 2011: The U.S. withdraws its remaining troops from Iraq, leaving behind a fragile state facing significant security and political challenges.
• 2014-2017: The Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) emerges and takes control of large parts of Iraq, committing atrocities and displacing millions.
• 2017: Iraqi forces, backed by a U.S.-led coalition, defeat ISIS militarily, but the country faces the daunting task of rebuilding and reconciliation.
• Present: Iraq remains plagued by political instability, corruption, and economic challenges, while trying to address the legacies of past conflicts and rebuild its infrastructure and institutions.

Key Figures:

• Sargon of Akkad: Founder of the first Mesopotamian Empire
• Hammurabi: Babylonian king known for his comprehensive law code
• Nebuchadnezzar II: Neo-Babylonian king who rebuilt Babylon and constructed the Hanging Gardens
• Cyrus the Great: Persian king who conquered Babylon and established the tolerant Achaemenid Empire
• Alexander the Great: Macedonian king who conquered the Persian Empire and brought Hellenistic culture to Mesopotamia
• Harun al-Rashid: Abbasid Caliph during the peak of Islamic civilization in Baghdad
• Suleiman the Magnificent: Ottoman Sultan who conquered Baghdad and incorporated Iraq into the Ottoman Empire
• Faisal I: First king of independent Iraq, establishing the Hashemite monarchy
• Abdul Karim Qasim: Leader of the 1958 coup that overthrew the monarchy and established a republic
• Saddam Hussein: Authoritarian leader of Iraq from 1979 to 2003, known for his brutality and regional conflicts.

This historical overview offers a glimpse into the rich and complex history of Iraq. From its ancient Mesopotamian roots to its present-day challenges, Iraq has been shaped by a diverse array of empires, civilizations, and leaders. Understanding its past is crucial to appreciating the complexities of its present and informing its future trajectory.